The Role of Merchants in Spreading Islam

To call people to Allah is the duty of every responsible and conscientious Muslim. Since there is no priesthood in Islam or sacerdotal class among Muslims, the duty of the call to Allah cannot be limited to an ill-conceived and imaginary group called the 'men of religion as is the case with other religions.' In Islam, everyone is a man (or woman) of religion and everyone will be accountable to Allah as to whether or not one fulfilled their obligations sincerely and to the best of their abilities.

Urging Muslims to own up to their responsibilities in this respect, Almighty Allah Says (what means): “And who is better in speech than one who calls to Allah and does righteousness and says, ‘Indeed, I am of the Muslims.’” [Quran 41: 33]

Therefore, one need not be a profound scholar or a great jurist to call others to Islam. A Muslim should better be a caller to Islam by his good conduct than by eloquent oration, for to preach others to do something not practically embodied in the preacher's character is a vain attempt to win hearts and minds. Moreover, doing so incurs Allah’s displeasure, as He, the Almighty Says (what means): “O you who believe! Why do you say that which you do not do? Most hateful it is with Allah that you say that which you do not do.” [Quran 61:2-3]

The well-known adage “Actions speak louder than words” was well embodied in the Islamic history, namely the spread of Islam in many non-Muslim countries- like parts of Asia, Africa and Europe- through the good conduct of Muslim merchants who came into commercial contacts with the people of those countries.

Hereunder is a brief survey of that peaceful spread of Islam:

Southeast Asia

By the 14th century CE, as Islam made its way through Indian and Chinese merchants into the area of today’s Malaysia, Buddhist and Hindu influences gave way. Islam became the source of legitimacy for the Malay feudal rulers. It was during this period that Islamic and Malay identities combined together, though many Hindu and pre-Hindu customs and practices remained part of the Malay cultural and social mix.

Muslim influence in Southeast Asia is at least six centuries old, i.e., it was present by 1400 A.D. Some argue that the Islamic presence there goes back to at least 1100 A.D. in the earliest areas of Islamic influence, such as in Aceh and northern Sumatra in Indonesia. Whatever exact dates and sources one chooses to support, there is no doubt that the acceptance of Islam by many nations in present-day Malaysia, southern Thailand, Indonesia, Brunei, and the southern Philippines occurred within a few hundred years.

In the year 1500, the historian Anthony Reid notes that Islamic influence was present in coastal ports of Sumatra, Java, and Malaysia. Southeast Asian peoples came into direct contact with Muslim traders who had been not just to India, but also to Arabia. Arabic scholars also came to Malaysia and Indonesia, facilitating information about the new religion.

The successful spread of Islam in Indonesia, Malaysia, and the Philippines owed much to the introduction of the Noble Quran and other Islamic books and references. 

Today, 90% of Indonesians are Muslims, while over half of Malaysia's population is Muslim. In the Philippines, where the Spanish (and later Americans) won the war for religious converts, only 5% of the population is Muslim.

Africa

The growth of cities was both a cause and effect of the spread of Islam and economic growth in Muslim-ruled areas in Africa. Cultural developments in literature, arts and sciences, manufacturing and trade accompanied the spread of Islam and its influence on religious, intellectual, economic and political life in those regions.

Although unified Muslim rule lasted only about a century, Islam kept spreading and Muslim culture and society flourished.

Before 1500, Islam spread widely in sub-Saharan Africa. The first town south of the Sahara that became majority Muslim was Gao on the Niger River in Mali before 990, when a ruler accepted Islam. Over the centuries, many rulers followed. By 1040, groups in Senegal became Muslims. From them Islam spread to the region of today’s Senegal, west Mali, and Guinea. After the Soninke of the Kingdom of Ghana became Muslims about 1076, Islam spread along the Niger River.

Muslims established the kingdom of Mali in the thirteenth to fifteenth centuries, and Songhai from1465 to 1600. Farther east, Kanem-Bornu near Lake Chad became Muslim after 1100.

In West Africa, as was the case with Southeast Asia, it was traders who introduced Islam, and many rulers accepted it first, followed by others. African Muslim scholars became established in the major towns like Timbuktu, and they taught, wrote and practiced Islamic law as judges. Islam was established in West Africa throughout the Sahel belt and along the Niger River into today’s Nigeria.

It was famous trade routes which led to the empire of Ghana and connected prominent African places like Timbuktu (in Mali), the present Nigeria, Tripoli and Tunisia. These routes had made all the above mentioned places famous trade centers. These centers of trade invariably became centers of Islamic learning and civilization. New ideas came through visiting traders in the field of administrative practices.

In East Africa, traders had spread Islam down the coast by the tenth century, and it gradually developed further in the following centuries. In the Sudan, south of Egypt, the population of Nubia gradually became Muslim during the fourteenth century, through immigration of Muslim Arab tribesmen. Muslim rule and influence, however, did not extend south of Khartoum, where the Blue and White Niles before 1500.

The Miraculous Spread of Islam

Look at the beginnings of this religion and how it unified the Arabian Peninsula, while Arab loyalties were divided with unrestrained enmity and maliciousness everywhere. Look at how, as Muslims, they united, cast aside their differences, and became a firm brotherhood of faith!

Take a quick look at the early extraordinary conquests of Islam. Then at how the Muslims defended and maintained their position, even while their enemies fiercely opposed them!

After establishing their state, they spread to the farthest parts of the world and continued their conquest of hearts and armies there. Many emperors and nations fell into their hands, including the then powerful nations of Persia and Rome. Muslims easily overcame them and their surrounding lands even though their enemies were strong in warfare and well-supplied with arms. But the Muslims were victorious because of the virtues and merits of their religion, the strength of their faith, and Allah’s aid in assisting them until the boundaries of Islam spread from the East of the earth to its West.

This resulted as one of the great signs of Allah, proofs of His religion, and a miracle of His Prophet  sallallaahu  `alayhi  wa  sallam ( may  Allah exalt his mention ). Thus, people entered into Allah’s religion in multitudes with peace of mind and tranquillity, not by force or compulsion.

Whoever examines this fact closely will see that this religion is the truth, which will always reject anything false, even when it becomes tremendously appealing and reaches its zenith on the world stage. This is an undeniable fact which is easily seen by simple reasoning.

Among the most persistent falsehoods about Islam in the West today is the lie about forcible conversions to Islam. Many Westerners continue to believe that Islam is so widespread in the world today simply because of a 'holy campaign of terror' carried out by the early Muslims to convert non-Muslims to Islam. According to these fabrications, non-Muslims were given the choice of Islam or death.

How can we confront such misconceptions? First, there is no need to be apologetic. We Muslims should search for the truth and present it as it is.

This is how we have been instructed by Allah Almighty, in words (which means): "…Say: "The truth is from your Lord, so whoever wills – let him believe; and whoever wills – let him disbelieve.'" [Quran 18:29]

Islam is the religion of truth. The Quran is the book of truth; Allah Says (what means): "And with the truth We have sent it [i.e., the Quran]..." [Quran 17:105] And also: "So rely upon Allah; indeed, you are upon the clear truth." [Quran 27:79]

Therefore, we should ask ourselves first, before we are asked by anyone else, what is the truth? Did Muslims really force others to convert to Islam? Is there any evidence for consistent forcible conversion throughout Islamic history? As a matter of fact, there is no such evidence anywhere in the history of Islam.

Many distinguished Western historians have attested to this fact in their books, foremost amongst them are Sir Thomas W. Arnold in 'The Preaching of Islam', Marshall G. Hodgson in 'The Venture of Islam', Albert Hourani in 'A History of the Arab People', Ira Lapidus in 'A History of Islamic Societies', L.S. Starorianos in 'A Global Hisotry, the Human Heritage', and many others. In fact, there is a plethora of evidence to the contrary.

Some contemporary writers whose works are influenced by the enemies of Islam claim that these unprecedented victories were driven purely by materialism, which is completely baseless. They claim that the successful spread of Islam was possible because of the deterioration and downfall of the lands of the Caesar of Rome, and the material prosperity in Arabia. This point alone is sufficient enough to invalidate their claim.

Was there any power existing in the Arabian Peninsula before Islam capable of confronting even the weakest government? In their zeal, Muslims conquered the strongest governments and most powerful nations of the world. The enemies resisted with massive arms and vast armies, and every means in their power, but tyrannical rule was replaced by the Laws of the Quran and the Religion of Justice.

How can they misrepresent the conquests of Islam and its growth with the claim that material gain was the prime factor behind it? By such fabricated stories, they meant to tarnish Islam, promoting the accusations of the enemies of Islam, without understanding the truth.

The continuous existence of this religion, even under dangerous circumstances, is one of its distinguishing signs; despite the fact that its enemies collaborate for its total extermination; Allah Says (what means): "They [i.e., the disbelievers] want to extinguish the light of Allah with their mouths, but Allah will perfect His light, although the disbelievers dislike it." [Quran 61:8]

This is the true religion of Allah. If the necessary strength was assembled to repel the oppressors and end their systems of injustice, then no religion other than Islam would remain on the earth, and all of its inhabitants would accept it without compulsion or coercion, because it is the religion of truth, the natural religion, the religion of unity and social welfare. But its people are negligent, weak and disunited, and they are impeded by the influence of their enemies, preventing them from advancing. There is no might or ability except from Allah.

Da'wah in history

From an Islamic perspective, there is absolutely no compulsion on people to embrace it. People have always entered Islam willingly.  The historical presence of non-Muslim minorities living among Muslims is evidence of tolerance in Islam.

Islam spread in the most populated Muslim countries: Indonesia, Malaysia, Pakistan, Bangladesh, and within Africa through contact between the natives and Muslim travellers and merchants, who brought with them not only goods, but also Islamic values such as straight dealing, honesty and generosity.

The impact of Muslims upon these communities was tremendous.  In Singapore, near the port where the Arab traders used to land, the residents say that the natives used to prefer to buy from Muslim merchants because they expected good treatment and fair prices.

As was the case in most of the areas to which Islam spread, peaceful and voluntary reversion was far more important than conquest and force in spreading the faith in Southeast Asia. Almost everywhere in the islands of the region, trading contacts paved the way for reversion. Muslim merchants and sailors introduced local peoples to the ideas and rituals of the new faith and impressed on them how much of the known world had already been reverted. The first areas to be won to Islam in the last decades of the 13th century were several small port centres on the northern coast of Sumatra. From these ports, the religion spread in the following centuries across the Strait of Malacca to Malaya.

It is unfair to compare the spread of Islam in Asia and Africa with the spread of Islam in the West, and blame Muslims for not effectively promoting their religion in the West.  Unlike the modern western world, the Asians' and Africans' history was free from hostility and enmity against Muslims, and therefore, their reversion to Islam was natural and easy.

Could Da'wah Fail?

Allah will guide, through Da'wah (Islamic propagation), those who are worthy and qualified for His Mercy; those who have good hearts and are sincerely searching for the truth. He will turn away from it those who do not deserve His mercy; those who chose to divert from His way. This is decreed according to His perfect Wisdom and Knowledge.

The success of Da'wah is guaranteed as a fulfilment of Allah’s promises; He Says (what means): “… And who is more truthful than Allah…” [Quran: 4:87]

1. Allah promised to make the way for Da'wah easy for Prophet Muhammad salallaahu 'alayhi wa sallam (may Allah exalt his mention) and his followers alike; He Says (what means): “And We will ease you toward ease.” [Quran: 87:8]

2. Allah also promised to preserve the Quran, His last guidance to mankind. It is forever protected from any sort of distortion, change, or modification; He Says (what means): “Indeed, it is We who sent down the message [i.e., the Quran], and indeed, We will be its guardian.” [Quran: 15:9]

3. Allah promised to make Da'wah prevail and reach every place on earth, so that all mankind will be aware that Islam is the truth from their Lord; He Says (what means):  “We will show them Our signs in the horizons and within themselves until it becomes clear to them that it is the truth...” [Quran: 41:53]

4.Prophet Muhammad  sallallaahu  `alayhi  wa  sallam ( may  Allah exalt his mention ) assured us that Islam is the religion of the future and will spread all over the world when he said: “Indeed, Islam will reach every place that the day and night reach.  There is no house (in city or desert) on the Earth except that Islam will enter it.” [Ahmad]

Due to all of these reasons, Da'wah can never fail; that is why Prophet Muhammad  sallallaahu  `alayhi  wa  sallam ( may  Allah exalt his mention ) expected his followers to outnumber the followers of other prophets; He  sallallaahu  `alayhi  wa  sallam ( may  Allah exalt his mention ) said: “All of the prophets before me were given (tangible) miracles, due to which, people believed in them. But the miracle that has been given to me is indeed a revelation that Allah revealed to me [i.e., Quran and Sunnah].  So I hope, on the Day of Judgement, my followers will outnumber the followers of other prophets.” [Al-Bukhari]

In order for Da'wah to be effective, the caller must have sincere intention and, above all, a strong sense of piety.  In order to share Islam with people, we must develop strong relationships within our Ummah (Muslim community) to support these efforts with Da'wah centres and well-written material.  Each of us has a gift from Allah and we should not ignore our obligation in fear of rejection or failure, but join together to contribute our talents and resources to share the gift of Islam.

The spread of Islam in the Balkans – II

Military and political relations

The first part of this article highlights the ways in which Islam was introduced in the Balkans, with the trade relations being the primary focus. In this part, other factors are highlighted, namely: military and political relations with Muslim countries.

By 634, the Muslims, in their attempt to spread Islam to every possible area, had started to attack the borders of the Byzantine Empire, and made the first attempt to conquer Constantinople (now Istanbul). Some years later, in 717-718, the Muslim army under the command of Maslamah  may  Allah  have  mercy  upon  them surrounded Constantinople, however, they could not conquer it. In this expedition, the Muslim army penetrated as far as Adrianople (now Edirne) and Salonika, and this was known as the first contact by the Muslim armies with the Balkan nations. They also built a mosque near Gallata, known as the Arab Mosque. This ledsome Arabs (Muslims) to settle in Constantinople and Salonika. 

In the 9th century, the Muslims were more direct in their intentions towards the Balkan Peninsula. This was simple to understand because they conquered Crete in 823, Sicily in 827, and some parts of the Southern Italy as well, and the Balkan Peninsula was next in line. 

During 840-841, the Muslims conquered Taranto, Italy, and undertook incursions into the Balkan Peninsula, conquering Budva, Kotor, Rosi, and Rijeka. They even surrounded Dubrovnik for fifteen years, but without any success. This was the time when the Illyro-Albanians had their first contacts with the Muslim armies. They kept trying to take over the Balkan Peninsula until 1023 when they lost control of the Southern Italy. 

The traces of this new civilization are to be found everywhere. Nearby the cathedral of Trogir, there is a statue of an Arab man wearing turban, which is a sign of well established relationships. There also are the tombs of two Arabs, which is evidence that they must have been living there for some time. 

On the other hand, the conquest of Spain by the Muslims opened a new chapter in their relations with the Balkan nations. Some of the Slav tribes, especially the Slovenians and Croats, had good relations with the Muslim Spain. In the royal court of Haakimi I (791-822) there were 2000 guards of Croatian origin. Such a large number of guards indicated the extensive relations between them. 

This variety of military relations was extended to the politics, too. The Muslim countries had cordial relationship with their Balkan counterparts. In 856, the Serb king, Mikhail III, sent his envoy to the Caliph Al-Mutawakkil Ibn Ar-Rasheed of the Abbasid dynasty to arrange a form of debate on religious matters. 

In 922, moved by the Islamic teachings, the Bulgarian king sent an envoy to Caliph Al-Muqtadir of the Abbasid dynasty to convey his family’s decision to embrace Islam. 

In this point, well known are the contacts that Caliph Haroon Ar-Rasheed had established with the European rulers. He had sent his envoy to the Serb king, Carl the Great, in order to establish cordial and reciprocal relations. 

The Croat ruler, Prince Tomislav, had good relations with caliph Abdur-Rahmaan III and even used to exchange gifts. Abdur-Rahmaan III had sent envoys to all the Slav kingdoms to discuss and charter their future relations. 

The Europeans, the Balkan nations included, kept continuous contacts with the Muslims—the Fatimids (969-1171), the Ayyubids (1171-1250) and the Mamluks (1250-1517)—because of various interests, trade being one of them. 

The Slavs were allies to the Muslims against the Roman and Byzantine Empires. However, their relations with the Illyro-Albanians will define the future military and political actors of the Balkan Peninsula. At the beginning, those relations were cordial, but changed rapidly. 

Yet, there were various contacts between the Muslims and the Illyro-Albanians. The fact that the Illyro-Albanians were ruled by the foreigners—the Roman and Byzantine Empires, the Serbs, etc.—means that they were almost never identified as an independent political entity. 

Missionaries and migrations

Maybe the most important factor that influenced the rapid spread of Islam among the Illyro-Albanians was the work of missionaries and migrations of different groups of people. There are indications that travelers and theologian visited almost every part of the peninsula centuries before the Ottomans appeared and played an important role in preaching Islam. This was in some way assisted by the fact that the Muslims controlled many territories around the Balkan Peninsula (Southern Italy, some Greek islands, the Asia Minor, etc.), and by the incursions of the Muslim armies as well. 

Maybe the most important among the migrations was a group of Turkish Muslims who settled in Southern Hungary (near the border with the Byzantine Empire) and somewhere near the Ohrid Lake (Macedonia) as well (almost in the center of the peninsula). This was the time when the first concentrated Muslim dwellings were seen in the peninsula. 

The Russian Czar Theofil, while fighting in the Asia Minor, forced many Muslims to migrate. They settled in the Balkan Peninsula in the valley of the Vardar River. They came to be known the "Turks of Vardar." 

Yet, the presence of the Muslims in the Balkan Peninsula was so great that the Christian kingdoms could no longer tolerate them. Thus, in the 13th century, many crusades directed to the Middle East passed through the peninsula and exterminated the Muslims living there.

The spread of Islam in the Balkans – I

How the Islamic civilization emerged in the Balkan Peninsula is one of the most complex problems and requires multi-dimensional research. Unfortunately, many historic facts concerning Islam and the Balkan Peninsula have been "forgotten," or even distorted. This has been the result of centuries of pressure from the Serb and European historians and their political establishments.

The two ways that enabled the spread of Islam in the Balkans were:

(1) The military expeditions sent to extend the borders of the state of Islam, and

(2) The persuasive powers of the Islamic teachings themselves made people ultimately embrace it. 

Insofar as the nations of the Balkan Peninsula are concerned, the overwhelming historic evidence reveals that military expeditions were of little significance in the spread of Islam. Thus, the teachings of Islam were the crucial factor in winning people over. The Quranic declaration that "there is no compulsion in religion," gave people the feeling of freedom for the first time in centuries. The very famous Albanian writer, S. Frashëri, observes: "Apart from the usage of military might to spread Islam, there does exist another way without turning to invasion or the force of arms, a way that is often not mentioned by the historians." Arnold Toynbee considers this a major point and mentions it in his book, too. 

Looking back in history, it is easy to understand which way was the most influential means of spreading Islam; the force of arms or Islamic teachings. Most of the time, the Muslim armies only opened the "door" for the Islamic civilization to present itself, and ultimately the people would see the difference. 

Islamic civilization entered the Balkan Peninsula mainly from the West through the contacts with Andalusia in Spain, from the South through Mediterranean Sea and Sicily, and from the Northeast through Hungary. Even though the evidence is minimal, after a serious analysis, the above question—how did Islam come to the Balkan Peninsula—would be finally answered. 

After all the research, three are the ways through which the Islamic civilization gained its foothold in the Balkan Peninsula, and a further elaboration of them will follow. 

Trade relations

The development of Islamic civilization and of the Muslims themselves conditioned the expansion of trade. The goods produced were mainly traded with neighboring nations, however, the traders often ventured even further to far and unknown places. This is why that since the 9th century trade relations between Europe and the Middle East through the Mediterranean Sea has been booming. In these trade relations, the most daring Europeans were those from Florence, Venice, Pizza, Genoa, followed by the French, and Catalonians. The European merchants through Egypt and Syria ventured far into the Far East. 

The Illyro-Albanians had established trade relations with the Arab and Turkish nations, and not only the port-cities of the Adriatic Sea, but the rural parts of the Balkan Peninsula inhabited by them as well. Such strong trade relations had been established since ancient times, and continued into the pre-Ottoman and Ottoman periods. 

The Arab gold and silver coins excavated in Potoci, near Mostar of the present-day Bosnia-Herzegovina, date back to the time of Marwaan II (744-750 C) which tells of the extensive trade relations the Muslims had with the Balkan nations, first the Albanians and later the Slavs. 

Port-cities along the Adriatic Sea like Dubrovnik, Tivari, Ulqini, Durazzo, Valona, Himara, etc., and other Greek and Southern Italian cities were centers of trade. During the 12th century, the well known Muslim historians and travelers, Al-Idreesi and Ibn Hawkal, tell in fine details the social and political situation of those places. They also describe the road going through the Balkan Peninsula, from the Aegean Sea along the valley of the Vardar River to the coasts of the Adriatic Sea. 

Usually, the Italian merchants traveled by sea, whereas the Muslims mostly traveled overland. The merchants from Venice and Florence used to trade regularly and exchanged their goods mostly in Istanbul and Gallata. Well known are also the caravans from Dubrovnik to Istanbul, and vice versa. 

Such strong trade relations have had a great impact on the Balkan nations. Apart from buying and selling, which was the primary intention, the merchants brought many new ideas and changes. This was intensified further when the Muslim merchants started to establish themselves in some fortified and secured coastal cities. The first Muslim colonies appeared. Though they were very small in the beginning, they became larger, and even stronger. 

The spread of Islam in Africa

Ancient 

Ifreeqiyyah (Africa) and its Boundaries

The Arabs call Africa 'Ifreeqiyyah.' They gave this name to the Eastern part of Barbary and called the western part of Barbary the Maghrib, the name used until today. The Romans called it Africa after the destruction of Carthage. They included Barbary in it and later called the whole continent as Africa. Al-Bakri, a Muslim historian, interprets the word Ifreeqiyah as the Queen of Heaven. Al-Mas'oodi, another Muslim historian, holds another view that the name Ifreeqiyah  is given after the name of Ifrigos bin Abraha bin Al-Raysh, who built the town of Ifreeqiyah  in the Berber country. The famous Arab historian Ibn Khaldoon says that the name Ifreeqiyah was given after Ifreequs bin Qays bin Sayfi, one of the Kings of Yemen. Ibn al-Shabbat says that the name is derived from the Arabic word Bariq meaning 'clear,' because "in Africa there are no clouds in the sky".

Islam and Africa

Prophet Muhammad  sallallaahu  `alayhi  wa  sallam ( may  Allah exalt his mention ) (may Allah exalt his mention) who was born in 571 C.E., preached the message of Islam until his death in 632 C.E. The early contact of Islam with Africa began during the lifetime of the Prophet  sallallaahu  `alayhi  wa  sallam ( may  Allah exalt his mention ). He taught the unity of Allah and abolition of priesthood. The Qurayshites, who were the priestly class of the Arabs, therefore began to oppress him and his early followers. When their oppression went beyond limits, the Prophet  sallallaahu  `alayhi  wa  sallam ( may  Allah exalt his mention ) advised them to migrate and seek shelter in some other part of the world. Acting on his advice, some of them migrated to Abyssinia and sought refuge with Negus, a Christian king of Abyssinia in the year 615 C.E. It was significant that the first shelter of early Muslims was in Africa and their host who stood firm with them was an African.

These first Muslim-Arab refugees were pursued by their oppressors, the Qurayshites, even up to the court of Negus to take them back to Arabia. In spite of the appeal of the Qurayshite delegation, Negus did not leave the Muslims in the hands of their enemies; on the contrary, he welcomed them and granted them shelter and security.

Africa on the Eve of the Expansion of Islam

The power of the Roman Empire was sapped by religious discord. By the time Prophet Muhammad  sallallaahu  `alayhi  wa  sallam ( may  Allah exalt his mention ) began his mission, the Egyptians and Syrians had partially severed their active link with the Roman Empire. In the year 634 CE, when the Muslim volunteers advanced with their faith toward new territories, the first Caliph, Abu Bakr, may Allah be pleased with him, instructed them saying: "Do no harm to women, children and old people, refrain from pillage and the destruction of crops, fruit trees, and herds, and leave in peace Christian monks and authorities as might be found in their cells."

When Abu Bakr, may Allah be pleased with him, died, his mission was taken over by the second Caliph of Islam 'Umar bin Al-Khattaab (634-644), may Allah be pleased with him.

The state of North Africa, on the eve of the Arab conquest, was far from being stable. The Latin-speaking provinces were governed from Constantinople. Although the ecclesiastical policy of the House of Heraclius favoured the Christology known as Monothelitism, or the doctrine of the single will, the Pope, under whose jurisdiction the African church fell, frowned upon it and repudiated it as heretical.

When the Arab conquest began in 647 A.D., the Exarch Gregory had already denounced allegiance to Constantinople and had proclaimed himself an Emperor. The peasantry was so oppressed that they had no inclination to fight for their masters. The native Berbers were highly disorganised and lacked leadership. Only those Berber clans which had accepted a settled life as cultivators carried some Byzantine influence, but the others were kept beyond the reach of civilisation. Christianity was not planted among them on a firm footing although there was some missionary work done. It is believed that the modern Tauregs were once Christians.

In Egypt, the native Copts were instructed by their bishop in Alexandria to offer no resistance to the Arab Muslims marching toward Egypt. "This is not surprising," says Professor Phillip Hitti, in view of the religious persecution to which they (Copts) as Monophysites had been subjected by the official Melkite (Royal) Church.

It was against this background that during the Caliphate of 'Umar bin Al- Khattaab, may Allah be pleased with him, the Muslim volunteer force, in 639 A.D., under the command of 'Amr bin Al-'Aas, may Allah be pleased with him, penetrated into Egypt.

During the days of Jaahileeyyah (the pre-Islamic period of ignorance), 'Amr bin Al-'Aas, may Allah be pleased with him, had made many caravan trips to Egypt and was familiar with its routes and cities. The following portrait of the advancing Muslim Arabs has been recorded by an envoy of Cyrus:

"We have witnessed a people, to each and every one of whom death is preferable to life, and humanity to prominence, and to none of whom this world has the least attraction. They sit not except on the ground, and eat not but on their knees. Their leader (Ameer) is like unto one of them: the low cannot be distinguished from the high, nor the master from the slave. And when the time of prayer comes, none of them absents himself; all wash their extremities and humbly observe their prayer."

The fall of Egypt made the Byzantine provinces, bordering on its west, defenceless. Later Bargah and the Berber tribes of Tripoli were included in the Islamic provinces without any resistance.

The first serious attempt to expand Islam in Africa is credited to 'Uqbah (Okba) bin Naafi'  may  Allah  have  mercy  upon  him who is revered to this day as the founder of Muslim Africa. He planted a permanent camp at Qayraawaan in 670 C.E., and thus came closer to the Byzantines and the Berbers. About ten years later, he undertook his famous march to the west and boldly claimed the whole African continent for Islam. This brought Muslims almost close to Europe.

It is reported that 'Uqbah began his march from Qayraawaan, avoiding the Byzantine towns north of the Awras, and went toward the Central plateau and pushed beyond the Atlas Mountains and went as far as Tangier, and then turned south to Morocco. In the march, he followed the course of the river Sus to the point where it discharges into the Atlantic Ocean.

Muslim geographers and historians have provided us with excellent records about Africa. Ibn Battootah will always be remembered as the earliest Muslim scholar to travel through the thick forest of Africa. The Europeans named the forest as 'The white man's grave', even in the early 19th century. Early geographers, like Al-Khawarzimi, have indicated various names of African territories. The famous Muslim Scholar, Ibn Hawqal in his book Soorat al-Ardh has discussed the lifestyle of the black people. More copious material on West Africa is available from Al-Bakri who wrote in 1067 C.E., and later Ibn Khaldoon.

Author: Prof. A. Rahman I. Doi

The spread of Islam in Southeast Asia

The actual timing and introduction of the Islamic religion and its practice to Southeast Asia is subject to debate. European historians have argued that it came through trading contacts with India whereas some Southeast Asian Muslim scholars claim it was brought to the region directly from Arabia in the Middle East. Other scholars claim that Muslim Chinese who were engaged in trade introduced it.

Whatever the source, scholars acknowledge that Muslim influence in Southeast Asia is at least six centuries old, or was present by 1400 A.D. Some argue for origins to at least 1100 A.D. in the earliest areas of Islamic influence, such as in Aceh, northern Sumatra in Indonesia.

Whatever exact dates and sources one chooses to support, there is no doubt that Islamization of many peoples in present-day Malaysia southern Thailand Indonesia Brunei and the southern Philippines occurred within a few hundred years. The process of religious conversion absorbed many pre-existing Southeast Asian beliefs (often referred to as 'animism', or the belief in the power of invisible spirits of people's ancestors and the spirits of nature to influence the fortunes of humans on earth).

The scholar Anthony Reid, Professor of History at the University of California Los Angeles argues that this process of Islamization (and Christianization in the Philippines) occurred rapidly in Southeast Asia especially during the period of 1550-1650.

For example, Islam became strong in eastern Indonesia, especially coastal kingdoms of Sulawesi, Lombok, Kalimantan, Sumbawa, Makassar, and in Sulu and Magindanao (Cotabato Province) in the southern Philippines from 1603-1612. This does not mean that rulers and their subjects in these areas were totally devoted to upholding all of the basic rules of Islam. It means that Islamic influence was present, as evidenced through ruling elites' obligation to renounce the consumption of pork and to pronounce the daily five prayers. Some also practiced circumcision during this period.

Islam's influence and conversion in Southeast Asia

In the year 1500, Anthony Reid notes that Islamic influence was present in coastal ports of Sumatra, Java, and Malaysia. During this period, Muslim rulers tried to balance their patronage of Islam with international traders, urban mosques, and basic adherence to the Muslim doctrine of avoiding pork with their need to sustain rural peoples' beliefs in animism.

In the year 1590, Islamic writing appears in both Malay and Javanese scripts. This indicates a period of activity by Muslim scholars in select areas who were promoting Islamic beliefs.

Rapid commercialization increased global trade that involved Southeast Asians in extensive travel outside their home areas. Animism, or the belief in spirits, was an intensely 'local' religious form. It was difficult to perform rituals outside of one's own home area, since spirits (ancestral or otherwise) were not 'portable'. The increased global trade influenced indigenous Southeast Asian traders in two ways: 1) they were attracted to new religious forms that were not tied to specific places; and 2) they were impressed by the wealth and apparent materialistic power and talents of foreign traders.

Wealth and power, by indigenous animistic beliefs, signaled enhanced spiritual power. In other words, traders began to contemplate Islam and Christianity as alternative, in some cases superior, forms of religious belief. The success of European traders and Arabic traders during this period provided the basis of attraction to new ritual practices. In many cases, new religious practices were absorbed into the existing Southeast Asian ritual practices.

Southeast Asian peoples came into direct contact with Muslim traders who had been not just to India but also to Arabia. Arabic scholars also came to Malaysia and Indonesia facilitating information about the new religion. In the Philippines in contrast, Spanish missionary priests were directly involved in spreading Christian beliefs among the local populations.

The successful spread of Islam in Indonesia Malaysia and the Philippines owed much to the introduction of the Noble Quran and other Islamic books and references. Animistic beliefs, or those indigenous to Southeast Asia prior to the impact of Hindu or Theravada Buddhist beliefs, had no such written legacies.

Written doctrines enable religions to establish durability and a lasting impact on people; oral religious traditions easily change and adapt to new circumstances. While these great new religious traditions took a toll on local beliefs, and in that sense were intrusions of foreign influence in Southeast Asia they also left great impressions.

Today, 90% of Indonesians are Muslims, while over half of Malaysia's population is Muslim. In the Philippines where the Spanish (and later Americans) won the war for religious converts, only 5% of the population is Muslim.

abu jahal

Abu Jahl, Amr ibn Hisham was from the nobles of Quraysh; the same tribe as the Muhammad. He was the flag bearer of disbelief and hatred towards Islam and Muslims. His hatred and enmity as to such an extent that the Muhammad gave him the title of: ‘THE PHARAOH OF THIS UMMAH’. 

He was from the Banu Makhzum family and had great name and fame in all of Arabia for his generosity and hospitality of guests. He was also from amongst those elders to whom people turned to for solving issues and deciding their affairs.

He was so respected and honored that the day of his death was made a public day of mourning and remembrance.

Unfortunately, his motive for generosity and giving was a bit different. He wished to be the talk of the town and gain a position and status amongst the people.

Abu Jahl means ‘father of ignorance’.  

It was well-known amongst the idolaters of Quraysh that Abu Jahl had the title of ABUL-HAKAM, the father of wisdom. This was what he was referred to in the special assemblies of the senior and elders of his tribe.

The rule of these private assemblies was that a person had to be at least forty years old to be allowed to attend. But Abul-Hakam, at the age of 30 already attended them, because he had deep wisdom, intelligence and understanding which made the elders of Quraysh trust his opinion and relied on him as an elite member of their assembly.

But when Muhammad ﷺ was chosen as the Messenger of Allah and sent to guide his people and the world from darkness to light, he became known as Abu Jahl: the father of ignorance.

This title was given to him by the Messenger of Allah ﷺ due to his hatred, enmity and cruelty towards the message of Islam and the Muslims. 

Muhammad ﷺ disliked that a good title should be given to a wicked person and an evil title should be given to righteous person.

Muhammadﷺ said, “It is only Allah who is the possessor of infinite wisdom and justice (and no one else is entitled to this name). To Him returns the final decision of all affairs.” [1]

He ﷺ also said, “He who calls Abu Jahl (the father of ignorance) – Abul-Hakam (father of wisdom), then he has made a serious mistake. He should seek forgiveness from Allah for this.” [2]

● We learn from all of this that name and fame for the sake of worldly benefit and reputation is an evil quality that Allah dislikes.

● We learn that all actions should be done for the sake of Allah. 

● We learn that wicked deeds deprives us having a good name.

● We learn that wealth and nobility cannot benefit us if we do not have faith and righteousness.

____

F.N.

[1] Abu Dawūd

[2] Ansabul-Ashraaf

____

SOURCE:

Lessons From the Lives of Those Who Went Astray

Lesson 4: Amr ibn Hisham  

8 Reasons about Why Rome Fell

Read on to discover eight reasons why one of history’s most legendary empires finally came crashing down.

 News Desk

In the late fourth century, the Western Roman Empire crumbled after a nearly 500-year run as the world’s greatest superpower. Historians have blamed the collapse on hundreds of different factors ranging from military failures and crippling taxation to natural disasters and even climate change. Still others argue that the Roman Empire didn’t really fall in 476 A.D., since its eastern half continued for another thousand years in the form of the Byzantine Empire. While just how and when the Empire fell remains a subject of ongoing debate, certain theories have emerged as the most popular explanations for Western Rome’s decline and disintegration. 

Invasions by Barbarian tribes

The most straightforward theory for Western Rome’s collapse pins the fall on a string of military losses sustained against outside forces. Rome had tangled with Germanic tribes for centuries, but by the 300s “barbarian” groups like the Goths had encroached beyond the Empire’s borders. The Romans weathered a Germanic uprising in the late fourth century, but in 410 the Visigoth King Alaric successfully sacked the city of Rome. The Empire spent the next several decades under constant threat before “the Eternal City” was raided again in 455, this time by the Vandals. Finally, in 476, the Germanic leader Odoacer staged a revolt and deposed the Emperor Romulus Augustulus. From then on, no Roman emperor would ever again rule from a post in Italy, leading many to cite 476 as the year the Western Empire suffered its deathblow.

Economic troubles and overreliance on slave labor

Even as Rome was under attack from outside forces, it was also crumbling from within thanks to a severe financial crisis. Constant wars and overspending had significantly lightened imperial coffers, and oppressive taxation and inflation had widened the gap between rich and poor. In the hope of avoiding the taxman, many members of the wealthy classes had even fled to the countryside and set up independent fiefdoms. At the same time, the empire was rocked by a labor deficit. Rome’s economy depended on slaves to till its fields and work as craftsmen, and its military might had traditionally provided a fresh influx of conquered peoples to put to work. But when expansion ground to a halt in the second century, Rome’s supply of slaves and other war treasures began to dry up. A further blow came in the fifth century, when the Vandals claimed North Africa and began disrupting the empire’s trade by prowling the Mediterranean as pirates. With its economy faltering and its commercial and agricultural production in decline, the Empire began to lose its grip on Europe.

The rise of the Eastern Empire

The fate of Western Rome was partially sealed in the late third century, when the Emperor Diocletian divided the Empire into two halves—the Western Empire seated in the city of Milan, and the Eastern Empire in Byzantium, later known as Constantinople. The division made the empire more easily governable in the short term, but over time the two halves drifted apart. East and West failed to adequately work together to combat outside threats, and the two often squabbled over resources and military aid. As the gulf widened, the largely Greek-speaking Eastern Empire grew in wealth while the Latin-speaking West descended into economic crisis. Most importantly, the strength of the Eastern Empire served to divert Barbarian invasions to the West. Emperors like Constantine ensured that the city of Constantinople was fortified and well guarded, but Italy and the city of Rome—which only had symbolic value for many in the East—were left vulnerable. The Western political structure would finally disintegrate in the fifth century, but the Eastern Empire endured in some form for another thousand years before being overwhelmed by the Ottoman Empire in the 1400s.

Overexpansion and military overspending

At its height, the Roman Empire stretched from the Atlantic Ocean all the way to the Euphrates River in the Middle East, but its grandeur may have also been its downfall. With such a vast territory to govern, the empire faced an administrative and logistical nightmare. Even with their excellent road systems, the Romans were unable to communicate quickly or effectively enough to manage their holdings. Rome struggled to marshal enough troops and resources to defend its frontiers from local rebellions and outside attacks, and by the second century the Emperor Hadrian was forced to build his famous wall in Britain just to keep the enemy at bay. As more and more funds were funneled into the military upkeep of the empire, technological advancement slowed and Rome’s civil infrastructure fell into disrepair.

Government corruption and political instability

If Rome’s sheer size made it difficult to govern, ineffective and inconsistent leadership only served to magnify the problem. Being the Roman emperor had always been a particularly dangerous job, but during the tumultuous second and third centuries it nearly became a death sentence. Civil war thrust the empire into chaos, and more than 20 men took the throne in the span of only 75 years, usually after the murder of their predecessor. The Praetorian Guard—the emperor’s personal bodyguards—assassinated and installed new sovereigns at will, and once even auctioned the spot off to the highest bidder. The political rot also extended to the Roman Senate, which failed to temper the excesses of the emperors due to its own widespread corruption and incompetence. As the situation worsened, civic pride waned and many Roman citizens lost trust in their leadership.

The arrival of the Huns and the migration of the Barbarian tribes

The Barbarian attacks on Rome partially stemmed from a mass migration caused by the Huns’ invasion of Europe in the late fourth century. When these Eurasian warriors rampaged through northern Europe, they drove many Germanic tribes to the borders of the Roman Empire. The Romans grudgingly allowed members of the Visigoth tribe to cross south of the Danube and into the safety of Roman territory, but they treated them with extreme cruelty. According to the historian Ammianus Marcellinus, Roman officials even forced the starving Goths to trade their children into slavery in exchange for dog meat. In brutalizing the Goths, the Romans created a dangerous enemy within their own borders. When the oppression became too much to bear, the Goths rose up in revolt and eventually routed a Roman army and killed the Eastern Emperor Valens during the Battle of Adrianople in A.D. 378. The shocked Romans negotiated a flimsy peace with the barbarians, but the truce unraveled in 410, when the Goth King Alaric moved west and sacked Rome. With the Western Empire weakened, Germanic tribes like the Vandals and the Saxons were able to surge across its borders and occupy Britain, Spain and North Africa.

Christianity and the loss of traditional values

The decline of Rome dovetailed with the spread of Christianity, and some have argued that the rise of a new faith helped contribute to the empire’s fall. The Edict of Milan legalized Christianity in 313, and it later became the state religion in 380. These decrees ended centuries of persecution, but they may have also eroded the traditional Roman values system. Christianity displaced the polytheistic Roman religion, which viewed the emperor as having a divine status, and also shifted focus away from the glory of the state and onto a sole deity. Meanwhile, popes and other church leaders took an increased role in political affairs, further complicating governance. The 18th-century historian Edward Gibbon was the most famous proponent of this theory, but his take has since been widely criticized. While the spread of Christianity may have played a small role in curbing Roman civic virtue, most scholars now argue that its influence paled in comparison to military, economic and administrative factors.

Weakening of the Roman legions

For most of its history, Rome’s military was the envy of the ancient world. But during the decline, the makeup of the once mighty legions began to change. Unable to recruit enough soldiers from the Roman citizenry, emperors like Diocletian and Constantine began hiring foreign mercenaries to prop up their armies. The ranks of the legions eventually swelled with Germanic Goths and other barbarians, so much so that Romans began using the Latin word “barbarus” in place of “soldier.” While these Germanic soldiers of fortune proved to be fierce warriors, they also had little or no loyalty to the empire, and their power-hungry officers often turned against their Roman employers. In fact, many of the barbarians who sacked the city of Rome and brought down the Western Empire had earned their military stripes while serving in the Roman legions.

WB

Miracles Of Prophets Of Islam

Allah The Almighty supported His Prophets with miracles, which are extraordinary events that are usually of the same nature that the people of that particular prophet excelled at. For instance, the people of Prophet Moosa, may Allah exalt his mention, excelled at magic, so the miracle of Prophet Moosa, may Allah exalt his mention, was that he threw his staff and it turned to a serpent. Likewise, the people of Prophet ‘Eesa, may Allah exalt his mention, excelled at medicine, so Prophet ‘Eesa, may Allah exalt his mention, cured the blind and the leper, and gave life to the dead by the permission of Allah The Almighty. The Arabs excelled at poetry and rhetoric and therefore Allah The Almighty sent them the Quran and it was a miracle that they were not even able to compose one Soorah (Chapter) like it.

Below are some of the miracles of the Prophets, may Allah exalt their mention:

The miracle of Saalih, may Allah exalt his mention

Allah The Almighty sent Prophet Saalih, may Allah exalt his mention, to his people to call them to worship Allah The Almighty alone, and not to associate any partners with Him. They asked him to bring them proof of what he was saying, so Allah The Almighty supported him with the miracle of the she-camel. He made a unique she-camel emerge from between the mountain rocks. Some of them believed him, but the majority of them disbelieved and intended to kill the she-camel. Prophet Saalih, may Allah exalt his mention, warned them saying (what means): {And to the Thamud [We sent] their brother Salih. He said, "O my people, worship Allah; you have no deity other than Him. There has come to you clear evidence from your Lord. This is the she-camel of Allah [sent] to you as a sign. So leave her to eat within Allah's land and do not touch her with harm, lest there seize you a painful punishment.} [Quran 7:73]

The miracle of Ibraaheem (Abraham), may Allah exalt his mention

Ibraaheem, may Allah exalt his mention, rejected the practices of his people. They worshipped idols that could neither harm nor benefit them. One day, he destroyed the idols without anyone seeing him. When his people came to know that it was Ibraaheem, may Allah exalt his mention, who had done that, they prepared a huge fire and threw him into it. However, the fire did not burn Ibraaheem, may Allah exalt his mention, and did not affect him at all, as Allah The Almighty ordered it not to burn him. Allah The Almighty Says (what means): {They said, "Burn him and support your gods - if you are to act. "Allah Said, "O fire, be coolness and safety upon Abraham." And they intended for him harm, but We Made them the greatest losers.} [Quran 21:68-70]

The miracle of Moosa (Moses), may Allah exalt his mention

Allah The Almighty Says (what means): {And what is that in your right hand, O Moses?"He said, "It is my staff; I lean upon it, and I bring down leaves for my sheep and I have therein other uses." [Allah] said, "Throw it down, O Moses." So he threw it down, and thereupon it was a snake, moving swiftly.} [Quran 20:17-20] The staff was one of the miracles given to Prophet Moosa, may Allah exalt his mention. By that staff, he defeated the magicians of Pharaoh, extracted water from rock and turned the sea into land by the permission of Allah The Almighty so that He would save the believers and punish the disbelievers.

The miracles of ‘Eesa, may Allah exalt his mention

The miracle of Prophet ‘Eesa, may Allah exalt his mention, was that he cured the blind and the leper, and gave life to the dead by the permission of Allah The Almighty. He would design the form of a bird from clay, breathe into itand it became a bird by the permission of Allah The Almighty. Allah The Almighty Says (what means): {And [make him] a messenger to the Children of Israel, [who will say], 'Indeed I have come to you with a sign from your Lord in that I design for you from clay [that which is] like the form of a bird, then I breathe into it and it becomes a bird by permission of Allah. And I cure the blind and the leper, and I give life to the dead - by permission of Allah. And I inform you of what you eat and what you store in your houses. Indeed in that is a sign for you, if you are believers.} [Quran 3:49]

Another miracle of Prophet ‘Eesa, may Allah exalt his mention, was the table that was sent down from heaven with food. His people wanted him to ask Allah The Almighty to send down a table spread with food so that their faith would increase. They urged him to supplicate His Lord to do so, and he warned them, but they insisted, so Allah The Almighty sent down the table so that it would be a miracle of Prophet ‘Eesa, may Allah exalt his mention. Allah The Almighty Says (what means): {[And remember] when the disciples said, "O Jesus, Son of Mary, can your Lord send down to us a table [spread with food] from the heaven? [Jesus] said," Fear Allah, if you should be believers."They said, "We wish to eat from it and let our hearts be reassured and know that you have been truthful to us and be among its witnesses."Said Jesus, the son of Mary, "O Allah, our Lord, send down to us a table [spread with food] from the heaven to be for us a festival for the first of us and the last of us and a sign from You. And provide for us, and You are the best of providers. "Allah said, "Indeed, I will send it down to you, but whoever disbelieves afterwards from among you - then indeed will I punish him with a punishment by which I have not punished anyone among the Worlds."} [Quran 5: 112-115]